Lesson 1Machine urine analysers: calibration, maintenance, checking electronic results, and linking with LISThis part covers automated urine analysers, including calibration, regular upkeep, internal checks, verifying electronic results, reviewing flags, and safely linking with the lab information system.
Principles of automated strip readersCalibration procedures and frequencyDaily and periodic maintenance tasksInternal checks and electronic QC flagsResult validation and delta checksLIS connectivity, mapping, and downtimeLesson 2Reagent strip tests: detailed body functions, testing principles, and clinical meaning of leukocyte esterase, nitrite, protein, glucose, ketones, blood, bilirubin, urobilinogen, pHThis part reviews each main reagent strip test, connecting kidney and body functions to testing principles, expected results, and clinical meaning, stressing limits, wrong results, and linking findings.
Leukocyte esterase: source, reaction, false resultsNitrite: bacterial conversion, sensitivity limitsProtein: albumin bias, pH and salt effectsGlucose: renal threshold and strip chemistryKetones: acetoacetate focus and omissionsBlood: hematuria, hemoglobinuria, myoglobinuriaLesson 3Standards for documenting and reporting physical and chemical results, including notifying critical valuesThis part defines standards for documenting and reporting physical and chemical urinalysis, including normal ranges, result notes, critical values, notification steps, and keeping records as required by rules.
Standardized units and reference intervalsStructured reporting of color and clarityUse of interpretive and cautionary commentsDefining and listing critical urine valuesCritical value notification and escalationRecord retention and audit trail needsLesson 4Interferences and errors in chemical testing (oxidising agents, ascorbic acid, very concentrated urine) and how to spot/fix themThis part addresses common interferences and errors in chemical testing, like oxidising agents, ascorbic acid, pigments, and very concentrated urine, and gives ways to spot, confirm, and reduce their effects.
Oxidizing cleaners and peroxide residuesAscorbic acid impact on blood and glucose padsPigmented drugs and food color interferenceHighly concentrated or dilute urine effectsConfirmatory tests to resolve discrepanciesPreventive measures in specimen collectionLesson 5Limits of semi-quantitative protein testing and use of protein/creatinine ratio; interferences and false positives/negativesThis part looks at limits of protein testing by strips, causes of wrong results, and the role of protein/creatinine ratio for better checking of protein in urine in different clinical and pre-testing situations.
Protein error of indicators: strip chemistrypH, concentration, and drug interferencesFalse positives from disinfectants and mucusFalse negatives in nonalbumin proteinuriaSpot protein/creatinine ratio principlesClinical use in monitoring kidney diseaseLesson 6Measuring specific gravity: manual refractometer method, urinometer basics, and calibration stepsThis part explains measuring specific gravity with refractometers and urinometers, covering principles, calibration, corrections for temperature and protein/glucose, limits in extreme cases, and comparison with osmometry.
Physical basis of urine specific gravityManual refractometer operation and readingRefractometer calibration and maintenanceUrinometer technique and common errorsProtein and glucose correction factorsComparison with osmolality measurementLesson 7Step-by-step reagent strip testing: proper handling, reading times, and interpretation periodsThis part outlines the full reagent strip process, including mixing sample, dipping strip, timing readings, avoiding dirt, interpretation periods, and noting invalid or doubtful results.
Specimen mixing and preanalytical checksCorrect strip storage and handling practicesImmersion depth, time, and excess removalTiming each pad and avoiding cross contaminationReading color changes within set windowsCriteria for repeating or rejecting a testLesson 8Standard visual check: assessing colour, clarity/turbidity, smell descriptions, and documentationThis part standardises visual urine checks, defining colour scales, clarity and turbidity types, smell descriptions, and proper light and containers, while stressing consistent records and linking to chemical findings.
Standard lighting and background requirementsColor terminology and reference chartsClarity and turbidity grading criteriaCommon causes of abnormal urine colorsOdor descriptors and clinical relevanceRecording visual findings in the LISLesson 9Quality control for reagent strips: verifying new lots, daily QC materials, control limits, recording, and fixesThis part details quality control for reagent strips, including checking new lots, choosing and storing QC materials, setting control limits, records, reviewing trends, and proper fixes.
New lot parallel testing and acceptanceSelection of levels and types of QC materialFrequency of QC and run acceptance rulesLevey–Jennings charts and trend detectionDocumentation of QC failures and actionsStaff training and competency in QCLesson 10Glucose and ketones: clinical levels, interferences, and effects of preservation and timingThis part focuses on urine glucose and ketones, describing kidney levels, diagnostic cut-offs, main interferences, sample handling, collection timing, and how preservation and delays change measured amounts.
Renal threshold and tubular handling of glucoseClinical ranges for glycosuria interpretationKetone production in fasting and ketoacidosisChemical principles of glucose and ketone padsEffects of storage time and temperatureAscorbic acid and other interfering substances
